Development of a vascular system is a fundamental requirement for many physiological and pathological processes. Actively growing tissues such as embryos and tumors require adequate blood supply. They satisfy this need by producing pro-angiogenic factors, which promote new blood vessel formation and maintenance via a process generally referred to as angiogenesis. Vascular formation is a complex but orderly biological event involving all or many of the following steps: a) Endothelial cells (ECs) proliferate from existing ECs or differentiate from progenitor cells; b) ECs migrate and coalesce to form cord-like structures; c) vascular cords then undergo tubulogenesis to form vessels with a central lumen d) existing cords or vessels send out sprouts to form secondary vessels; e) primitive vascular plexus undergo further remodeling and reshaping; and f) peri-endothelial cells are recruited to encase the endothelial tubes, providing maintenance and modulatory functions to the vessels; such cells including pericytes for small capillaries, smooth muscle cells for larger vessels, and myocardial cells in the heart. Hanahan, D. Science 277:48-50 (1997); Hogan, B. L. & Kolodziej, P. A. Nature Reviews Genetics. 3:513-23 (2002); Lubarsky, B. & Krasnow, M. A. Cell. 112:19-28 (2003).
It is now well established that angiogenesis is implicated in the pathogenesis of a variety of disorders. These include solid tumors and metastasis, atherosclerosis, retrolental fibroplasia, hemangiomas, chronic inflammation, intraocular neovascular diseases such as proliferative retinopathies, e.g., diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), neovascular glaucoma, immune rejection of transplanted corneal tissue and other tissues, rheumatoid arthritis, and psoriasis. Folkman et al., J. Biol. Chem., 267:10931-10934 (1992); Klagsbrun et al., Annu. Rev. Physiol. 53:217-239 (1991); and Garner A., “Vascular diseases”, In: Pathobiology of Ocular Disease. A Dynamic Approach, Garner A., Klintworth G K, eds., 2nd Edition (Marcel Dekker, NY, 1994), pp 1625-1710.
In the case of tumor growth, angiogenesis appears to be crucial for the transition from hyperplasia to neoplasia, and for providing nourishment for the growth and metastasis of the tumor. Folkman et al., Nature 339:58 (1989). The neovascularization allows the tumor cells to acquire a growth advantage and proliferative autonomy compared to the normal cells. A tumor usually begins as a single aberrant cell which can proliferate only to a size of a few cubic millimeters due to the distance from available capillary beds, and it can stay ‘dormant’ without further growth and dissemination for a long period of time. Some tumor cells then switch to the angiogenic phenotype to activate endothelial cells, which proliferate and mature into new capillary blood vessels. These newly formed blood vessels not only allow for continued growth of the primary tumor, but also for the dissemination and recolonization of metastatic tumor cells. Accordingly, a correlation has been observed between density of microvessels in tumor sections and patient survival in breast cancer as well as in several other tumors. Weidner et al., N. Engl. J. Med 324:1-6 (1991); Horak et al., Lancet 340:1120-1124 (1992); Macchiarini et al., Lancet 340:145-146 (1992). The precise mechanisms that control the angiogenic switch is not well understood, but it is believed that neovascularization of tumor mass results from the net balance of a multitude of angiogenesis stimulators and inhibitors (Folkman, 1995, Nat Med 1(1):27-31).
The process of vascular development is tightly regulated. To date, a significant number of molecules, mostly secreted factors produced by surrounding cells, have been shown to regulate EC differentiation, proliferation, migration and coalescence into cord-like structures. For example, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has been identified as the key factor involved in stimulating angiogenesis and in inducing vascular permeability. Ferrara et al., Endocr. Rev. 18:4-25 (1997). The finding that the loss of even a single VEGF allele results in embryonic lethality points to an irreplaceable role played by this factor in the development and differentiation of the vascular system. Furthermore, VEGF has been shown to be a key mediator of neovascularization associated with tumors and intraocular disorders. Ferrara et al., Endocr. Rev. supra. The VEGF mRNA is overexpressed by the majority of human tumors examined. Berkman et al., J. Clin. Invest. 91:153-159 (1993); Brown et al., Human Pathol. 26:86-91 (1995); Brown et al., Cancer Res. 53:4727-4735 (1993); Mattern et al., Brit. J. Cancer 73:931-934 (1996); Dvorak et al., Am. J. Pathol. 146:1029-1039 (1995).
Also, the concentration levels of VEGF in eye fluids are highly correlated to the presence of active proliferation of blood vessels in patients with diabetic and other ischemia-related retinopathies. Aiello et al., N Engl. J. Med. 331:1480-1487 (1994). Furthermore, studies have demonstrated the localization of VEGF in choroidal neovascular membranes in patients affected by AMD. Lopez et al., Invest. Opthalmol. Vis. Sci. 37:855-868 (1996).
Anti-VEGF neutralizing antibodies suppress the growth of a variety of human tumor cell lines in nude mice (Kim et al., Nature 362:841-844 (1993); Warren et al., J. Clin. Invest. 95:1789-1797 (1995); Borgström et al., Cancer Res. 56:4032-4039 (1996); Melnyk et al., Cancer Res. 56:921-924 (1996)) and also inhibit intraocular angiogenesis in models of ischemic retinal disorders. Adamis et al., Arch. Opthalmol. 114:66-71 (1996). Therefore, anti-VEGF monoclonal antibodies or other inhibitors of VEGF action are promising candidates for the treatment of tumors and various intraocular neovascular disorders. Such antibodies are described, for example, in EP 817,648 published Jan. 14, 1998; and in WO98/45331 and WO98/45332, both published Oct. 15, 1998. One of the anti-VEGF antibodies, bevacizumab, has been approved by the FDA for use in combination with a chemotherapy regimen to treat metastatic colorectal cancer (CRC) and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). And bevacizumab is being investigated in many ongoing clinical trials for treating various cancer indications.
During development of the nervous system, neurons send out cable-like axons that migrate over long distances in order to reach their targets. See review by Carmeliet and Tessier-Lavigne (2005) Nature 436:193-200. At the leading tip of a growing axon is a highly motile, sensory structure called growth cone. Through dynamic cycles of extension and retraction of filopodial extensions, the growth cone continually senses and asseses from a myriad of guidance cues in its spatial environment, and accurately selects a correct track for extension towards its final target.
Over the past decade, considerable progress has been made in understanding axon guidance mechanisms. See review by Dickson (2002) Science 298:1959-64. Guidance cues come in four varieties: attractants and repellents; which may act either at short range (i.e., cell- or matrix-associated) or at longer range (i.e., diffusible). So far, four major families of axon guidance molecules have been identified: the netrins, semaphorins, ephrins and slits. See review by Huber et al (2003) Annu Rev Neurosci 26:509-63.
The semaphorins (Sema), also called collapsins, belong to a large family of phylogenetically conserved secreted and membrane-associated proteins. Members of the semaphorin family are capable of mediating both repulsive and attractive axon guidance events during neural development. Raper (2000) Curr Opin Neurobiol 10:88-94. The more than thirty semaphorins identified to date all share a conserved N-terminal Sema domain of about 500 amino acids. Semaphorin members are classified into eight subfamilies depending on their structural similarities and species of origin. For more details on unified nomenclature for semaphorins, see Semaphorin Nomenclature Committee (1999) Cell 97:551-552.
The neuropilin (NRP) family is comprised of two homologous proteins, neuropilin-1 (NRP1) and neuropilin-2 (NRP2). NRP1 was first identified as a type I 130-kDa transmembrane glycoprotein expressed in growth cones of growing axons. NRP2 was subsequently identified by expression cloning. Fujisawa and Kitsukawa (1998) Curr Opin Neurobiol 8:587-592. NRPs are found to be receptors for a subset of semaphorins, the class 3 semaphorins. It was suggested that NRPs function as non-signaling co-receptors along with another semaphorin receptor family, plexins.
Although initially described as a mediator of axon guidance, NRPs have also been found to play critical roles in vascular development. Carmeliet and Tessier-Lavigne (2005). It is identified as an isoform-specific VEGF receptor expressed on tumor and endothelial cells, prompting considerable efforts to understand the role of NRPs in vascular and tumor biology. Soker et al (1998) Cell 92:735-745; Klagsbrun et al (2002) Adv Exp Med Biol 515:33-48. Genetic studies have provided strong evidence that Nrp1 is required for vascular morphogenesis. Loss of Nrp1 function results in vascular remodeling and branching defects, a phenotype that can be further enhanced by the loss of Nrp2 function. Kawasaki et al. (1999) Development 126:4895-4902; Takashima et al. (2002) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:3657-3662. These results suggest that early in development Nrp1 and Nrp2 may have overlapping functions. However, the expression of each Nrp is partitioned later in development, with Nrp1 being expressed primarily in arteries, and Nrp2 in veins and lymphatic vessels. Yuan et al (2002) Development 129:4797-4806; Herzog et al. (2001) Mech Dev 109:115-119. Notably, loss of Nrp2 function alone specifically impairs lymphatic development.
As Nrp1 is expressed in many other cell types during development, the role of vascular Nrp1 was addressed through the generation of an EC-specific knock-out, which resulted in similar vascular defects to those seen in the null allele. Gu et al. (2003) Dev Cell 5:45-57. Interestingly, this study also showed that Sema3A binding to NRP1 is not required for vascular development. In another study, defects were observed in the guidance of endothelial tip cells in the developing hindbrain in Nrp1 KO embryos. Gerhardt et al. (2004) Dev Dyn 231:503-509.
Despite the extensive studies in NRP1's role in vascular development, it remains unclear as to whether NRP1 exerts its vascular function exclusively via the VEGF-VEGF Receptor 2 (VEGFR2) pathway, as an enhancer for VEGF binding to VEGFR2 and thereby for VEGFR2 signaling, or via a signaling pathway independent of VEGFR2, or a combination of both.
Monoclonal antibodies can be manufactured using recombinant DNA technology. Widespread use has been made of monoclonal antibodies, particularly those derived from rodents, however nonhuman antibodies are frequently antigenic in humans. The art has attempted to overcome this problem by constructing “chimeric” antibodies in which a nonhuman antigen-binding domain is coupled to a human constant domain (Cabilly et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,816,567). The isotype of the human constant domain may be selected to tailor the chimeric antibody for participation in antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC) and complement-dependent cytotoxicity. In a further effort to resolve the antigen binding functions of antibodies and to minimize the use of heterologous sequences in human antibodies, humanized antibodies have been generated for various antigens in which substantially less than an intact human variable domain has been substituted at regions by the corresponding sequence from a non-human species. For example, rodent residues have been substituted for the corresponding segments of a human antibody. In practice, humanized antibodies are typically human antibodies in which some complementarity determining region (CDR) residues and possibly some framework region (FR) residues are substituted by residues from analogous sites in rodent antibodies. Jones et al. (1986) Nature 321:522-525; Riechmann et al. (1988) Nature 332:323-327; Verhoeyen et al. (1988) Science 239:1534-1536.
Prior to administering a therapeutic antibody to human, preclinical studies in nonhuman mammals are generally desired to evaluate the efficacy and/or toxicity of the antibody. Ideally, the antibodies subject to these studies are capable of recognizing and reacting with high potency to a target antigen endogenous to the host animal such as mouse or nonhuman primate.
Phage display technology has provided a powerful tool for generating and selecting novel proteins that bind to a ligand, such as an antigen. Using the technique of phage display, large libraries of protein variants can be generated and rapidly sorted for those sequences that bind to a target antigen with high affinity. Nucleic acids encoding variant polypeptides are fused to a nucleic acid sequence encoding a viral coat protein, such as the gene III protein or the gene VIII protein. Monovalent phage display systems where the nucleic acid sequence encoding the protein or polypeptide is fused to a nucleic acid sequence encoding a portion of the gene III protein have been developed. (Bass, S. (1990) Proteins 8:309; Lowman and Wells (1991) Methods: A Companion to Methods in Enzymology 3:205). In a monovalent phage display system, the gene fusion is expressed at low levels and wild type gene III proteins are also expressed so that infectivity of the particles is retained. Methods of generating peptide libraries and screening those libraries have been disclosed in many patents (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,723,286, U.S. Pat. No. 5,432,018, U.S. Pat. No. 5,580,717, U.S. Pat. No. 5,427,908 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,498,530).
The demonstration of expression of peptides on the surface of filamentous phage and the expression of functional antibody fragments in the periplasm of E. coli was important in the development of antibody phage display libraries. (Smith et al. (1985) Science 228:1315; Skerra and Pluckthun (1988) Science 240:1038). Libraries of antibodies or antigen binding polypeptides have been prepared in a number of ways including by altering a single gene by inserting random DNA sequences or by cloning a family of related genes. Methods for displaying antibodies or antigen binding fragments using phage display have been described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,750,373, 5,733,743, 5,837,242, 5,969,108, 6,172,197, 5,580,717, and 5,658,727. The library is then screened for expression of antibodies or antigen binding proteins with desired characteristics.
Phage display technology has several advantages over conventional hybridoma and recombinant methods for preparing antibodies with the desired characteristics. This technology allows the development of large libraries of antibodies with diverse sequences in less time and without the use of animals. Preparation of hybridomas or preparation of humanized antibodies can easily require several months of preparation. In addition, since no immunization is required, phage antibody libraries can be generated for antigens which are toxic or have low antigenicity (Hogenboom (1988) Immunotechniques 4:1-20). Phage antibody libraries can also be used to generate and identify novel therapeutic antibodies.
Phage display libraries have been used to generate human antibodies from immunized, non-immunized humans, germ line sequences, or naïve B cell Ig repertories (Barbas & Burton (1996) Trends Biotech 14:230; Griffiths et al. (1994) EMBO J. 13:3245; Vaughan et al. (1996) Nat. Biotech. 14:309; Winter EP 0368 684 B1). Naïve, or nonimmune, antigen binding libraries have been generated using a variety of lymphoidal tissues. Some of these libraries are commercially available, such as those developed by Cambridge Antibody Technology and Morphosys (Vaughan et al. (1996) Nature Biotech 14:309; Knappik et al. (1999) J. Mol. Biol. 296:57). However, many of these libraries have limited diversity.
The ability to identify and isolate high affinity antibodies from a phage display library is important in isolating novel antibodies for therapeutic use. Isolation of high affinity antibodies from a library is dependent on the size of the library, the efficiency of production in bacterial cells and the diversity of the library. See, for e.g., Knappik et al. (1999) J. Mol. Biol. 296:57. The size of the library is decreased by inefficiency of production due to improper folding of the antibody or antigen binding protein and the presence of stop codons. Expression in bacterial cells can be inhibited if the antibody or antigen binding domain is not properly folded. Expression can be improved by mutating residues in turns at the surface of the variable/constant interface, or at selected CDR residues. (Deng et al. (1994) J. Biol. Chem. 269:9533, Ulrich et al. (1995) PNAS, 92:11907-11911; Forsberg et al. (1997 J. Biol. Chem. 272:12430). The sequence of the framework region is a factor in providing for proper folding when antibody phage libraries are produced in bacterial cells.
Generating a diverse library of antibodies or antigen binding proteins is also important to isolation of high affinity antibodies. Libraries with diversification in limited CDRs have been generated using a variety of approaches. See, e.g., Tomlinson (2000) Nature Biotech. 18:989-994. CDR3 regions are of interest in part because they often are found to participate in antigen binding. CDR3 regions on the heavy chain vary greatly in size, sequence and structural conformation.
Others have also generated diversity by randomizing CDR regions of the variable heavy and light chains using all 20 amino acids at each position. It was thought that using all 20 amino acids would result in a large diversity of sequences of variant antibodies and increase the chance of identifying novel antibodies. (Barbas (1994) PNAS 91:3809; Yelton, D E (1995) J. Immunology 155:1994; Jackson, J. R. (1995) J. Immunology 154:3310 and Hawkins, R E (1992) J. Mol. Biology 226:889).